READING Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

READING - Assignment Example Of great interest is the position that Kal Raustilia and Chris Sprigman (2012) take, contrary to conventional knowledge and mainstream belief. Raustilia and Sprigman are of the persuasion that it is not possible to quantify losses attributed to piracy and copyright violations and that statistical provisions by proponents of Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and Protect IP Act (PIPA) which show that copyright infringement costs the US 200 billion dollars and 750,000 jobs annually, cannot be relied upon. Raustilia and Sprigman (2012) cite Tim Lee’s assertion that statistical figures should neither be taken at face value, nor unquestionably relied upon since such figures are almost always prone to approximations, double and triple counting. Raustilia and Sprigman continue that in some instances, music piracy may serve as substitute for legitimate transactions, and that the same can also trigger increased savings, since, instead of money being spent to purchase music, music is downloa ded on the one hand. On the other hand, increased savings may catalyze economically significant initiatives and undertakings, and thereby covering for the supposed loss of jobs and revenue which piracy may have caused. Nevertheless, a critical look at factors that underpin legislation which proscribe the infringement of copyright rules and logical reasoning leave the proposition which Raustilia and Sprigman advance as too impractical to be effected. In the same vein, it is most probable that Raustilia and Sprigman had not thought deeply about the implications that would come with the violation and collective disregard of copyright laws. In the first place, Gorski (2011) illustrates that the need to safeguard creativity and originality defeats the standpoint that Raustilia and Sprigman (2012) advance. It must be realized that the Digital Millennium Copyright Act, Title 17 of the United States Code, the NET Act and the Copyright Act of 1909 do not merely seek to ensure that all who ac cess music buy them, but to actually protect originality and creativity. Always, music is a culmination of training and creativity which are valuable resources. It is preposterous to argue that the training and creativity which an individual uses to earn a living should be treated as valueless. In this case, Raustilia and Sprigman’s proposition that music piracy can help generate financial or economic value does not suffice since such an arrangement alienates the original thinker, creator and director of an original piece from his work. The kind of advancement which Raustilia and Sprigman make is tantamount to robbing Peter to pay Paul, if not worse. In a separate wavelength, it is important to note that legislative pieces such as the Copyright Act of 1909, the Digital Millennium Copyright Act, Title 17 of the United States Code and the NET Act are the very provisions which created the existence of the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and mandates RIAA to disc harge its duties and responsibilities. RIAA shows clearly that the music industry alone have forfeited millions of dollars to piracy. RIAA further divulges that in 2002, music revenue fell by 7% since the sale of CDs declined from 882 million to 803 million units. The report that RIAA provides in this case may be used to vindicate the statistical provisions that the proponents of SOPA and PIPA advance

What Are Some Obstacles You May Face as a Teacher Essay Example for Free

What Are Some Obstacles You May Face as a Teacher Essay What are some obstacles you may face as a teacher, and according to the context in this unit, how can you overcome these? Throughout their careers, teachers face many obstacles in their classroom that may hinder their teaching. These obstacles come in many different shapes and sizes. It is the effective and successful teacher who is able to overcome these obstacles while maintaining a happy, positive and joyful attitude. A teacher must remember that it is not the information they possess along with various skills that affects teaching, rather it the ability to overcome challenges in a positive manner that impacts on learning. Some of the many obstacles a teacher may face are; engaging unmotivated children in the classroom, promoting positive conditioning and reinforcement and accommodating those with development disabilities (Symonds, 1941). Keeping students motivated in the classroom and out is an obstacle many teachers will face. Unmotivated students tend to have negative attitudes, a general dislike for school, give up easily on set tasks and are the major cause of classroom disruption (Eggen Kauchak, 2010). These factors lead to students having a negative impact on other students in the classroom, thus making teaching difficult for the teacher. In order for the teacher to motivate these students, different theories of motivation such as behaviourist and humanistic must be implemented. These theories focus on motivating students through rewards and encourage them to reach their total potential not only as students but also as human beings (Eggen Kauchak, 2010). Although many critics believe that rewards send the wrong message to students about learning, many teachers use them as forms of motivation in the classroom. Rewards such as computer time, free time, praise and candy incite children to continue performing well. Also compassionate and caring teachers who care about their students both as human beings and pupils contribute to their motivation (Eggen Kauchak, 2010). When teachers show that they are concerned for their pupils, make time to talk to them individually, ask them about their problems and maintain high expectations in them, they are indirectly encouraging students to keep up their efforts and inciting them to do even better. Educators who display unconditional positive regard in their students, which, as defined by Eggen Kauchak (2010, p. 88) is, â€Å"the belief that someone is innately worthy regardless of their behaviour,† contribute to the personal growth of students as students accept their mistakes as part of their make-up and are encouraged to rise above them by challenging themselves to tackle academically stimulating assignments and activities and completing set tasks because they want to and not because they have to (Eggen Kauchak, 2010). Once the obstacle of engaging unmotivated students has been overcome, motivation levels need to be kept at a high at all times regardless of students performance. This can be achieved through positive reinforcement . â€Å"Positive reinforcement is the process of increasing the frequency or duration of a behaviour as a result of presenting a reinforcer† (Eggen Kauchak). In classrooms, teachers need to use positive reinforcers rather than show negative behaviour to encourage students to do better next time, repeat their good actions and increase positive behaviour. For example, Students are disappointed and miserable after performing poorly on a test. The teacher instead of telling the students off and pointing out all their mistakes, should give positive feedback to the students by telling them how well they performed in certain areas and where they improved. The teacher should then gently point out to the students the areas they had difficulty in without criticizing them and encourage them to partake in a class discussion on how they can improve in these areas. Then the teacher should present an incentive such as bonus points, stickers or a most improved certificate for those students who perform better on the next test. By using this approach, the teacher is giving both positive and negative feedback on performance and at the same time reinforcing students with a rewards incentive encouraging them to try their hardest next time. This type of reinforcement coupled with positive feedback tends to be the most effective (Jones, 2007). Another way teachers can offer positive reinforcement is by implementing the Premack principle. The Premack principle, named after David Premack is â€Å"the principle stating that a more-desired activity can serve as a reinforcer for a less-desired activity† (Eggen Kauchak, 2010, p. 69). Teachers often implement this strategy in their class sessions by offering them incentives to finish a certain task. In addition to the above positive reinforcement strategies, positive reinforcement also occurs through a teachers behaviour (Eggen Kauchak, 2010). When students are engaged in a lesson and indicate through their actions that they are involved in the lesson, then they are called on by the teacher to give their opinion on the topic as it is evident that they are fully aware of what is being discussed. Teachers who are able to implement positive reinforcement in their classrooms will ultimately get more out of their students than those who implement negative reinforcement . Another major obstacle teachers may face in the classroom is accommodating those students with development disabilities . Every individual being develops at a different rate and this is not any different for students. Students, regardless of being the same age or in the same year level tend to develop at different rates to each other. A common form of disability that is found in many classrooms today is intellectual disability . According to Fuchs, 2006; Nokelainen Flint, 2002, as cited in Eggen Kauchak (2010, p. 142), â€Å"intellectual disability is either caused by genetic factors, such as down syndrome, or brain damage to the fetus during pregnancy†. In order for teachers to be able to accommodate students with this disability they need to be aware of the characteristics of it as some of these characteristics tend to affect learning directly. These characteristics include but are not limited to; weak motor skills, underdeveloped interpersonal skills, poor memory, weak reading and language skills and little knowledge of the outside world (Eggen Kauchak, 2010). The theory relating to teachers overcoming the obstacle of having intellectually disabled students in their class is to include these students in the mainstream sessions conducted where instruction is modified to meet the needs of these students and help their social development (Eggen Kauchak, 2010). Case study shows and proves that students with intellectual disabilities want to participate in the same activities, be given the same reading material, handed out the same homework, issued the same judging criteria and be able to join in the same activities as their classmates. The same study showed that the peers of those with intellectual disabilities agreed with this as every child should be given a fair chance (Klingner Vaughn, 1999). Also, in order to ensure ease for teachers teaching those with intellectual disability and to ensure those students that have development disabilities receive the education they re entitled to, the federal government has set requirements that educators who teach students with disabilities must guarantee a free and suitable public education, instruct children in the least constricting setting, protect against bias in testing, include parents in developing each child’s learning program and develop an individually tailored education program of education for each student (Eggen Kauchak, 2010, p. 133). Teachers who adhere to these guidelines and take heed of the advice given and implement the findings of the case study will find that teaching those with development disabilities will no longer remain an obstacle. Rather it will become an educative and joyful experience . In conclusion there are many obstacles that a teacher will face in their teaching career. Their success will not be determined through avoidance of these obstacles but rather it will be determined through overcoming these obstacles in the most positive manner they can. Teachers who are able to develop motivation, promote positive conditioning and reinforcement and accommodate those with learning disabilities while keeping students successfully engaged and absorbed have indeed overcome some of the most difficult hurdles faced in their teaching career.

Everyday Use by Alice Walker Essay -- Alice Walker Everyday Use Essays

Everyday Use by Alice Walker In the short story Everyday Use, by Alice Walker, is narration by an African American woman in the South who is faced with the ultimate decision to whom she should give away the two quilts. Dee, her oldest daughter who is visiting from college, perceives the quilts as popular fashion and believes they should undoubtedly be given to her. Maggie, her youngest daughter, who still lives at home and understands the family heritage, has been promised the quilts. The two daughters each have opposing views on the value and worth of the different items in their lives. Walker uses this conflict to make the point that the significance of heritage is more important than style; so Mama she decides based upon the appearance, personalities and the idea about the family artifacts. Maggie is not as attractive as Dee. She is thin and an awkward girl. Her mother says â€Å"good looks pass her by.† Furthermore, she carries herself like someone who has low self-esteem, which her mother describes as â€Å"chin on chest, eyes on ground.† Maggie has characteristics like her mother, she is an example that heritage in both knowledge and form passes from one generation to another. Mama is a full-bodied woman who does the needed upkeep if their home and wears overalls daily because she does not care about her appearance compared to her eldest daughter. Dee, on the other hand, is an attractive woman in college. Mama describes Dee as having, â€Å"nice hair and a full figure.† Dee t...

Essay: the Promise of the Sociological Imagination

JaypeeII – AB Sociology 10-10-11 Socio 212MWF / 1:30pm – 2:30pm The Promise of the Sociological Imagination (By: C. Wright Mills) Charles Wright Mills (1916-1962) was an American sociologist, and a social commentator and critic. He was born on August 28, 1916 in Waco, Texas. Mills has been described as a â€Å"volcanic eminence† in the academic world and as â€Å"one of the most controversial figures in American social science†. He is committed to social change and angered by the oppression he saw around him. He was anti-authoritarian, showy and an individualistic. I figured out that, he got married three times by different women (Dorothy Helen Smith, Ruth Harper and Yaroslava Surmach) and had two daughters (Pamela and Kathryn) and one son (Nikolas Charles). Mills died on March 20, 1962 – cause of major heart attack. One of the most influential works of Mills (that he coined) was the Sociological Imagination (1959), in which he set out his views on how social science should be practiced. Sociological Imagination plays an important role in explaining the nature of sociology and its relevance in daily life. He defined it as, â€Å"the vivid awareness of the relationship between experience and the wider society†. In addition, he believed in the power of the Sociological Imagination to connect â€Å"personal troubles† to â€Å"public issues† – is the ability to see things socially, and how they interact and influence each other. Therefrom, to have a Sociological imagination, a person must be able to pull away from the situation and think from an alternative point of view. It requires thinking ourselves away from our daily routines, and then looking at them over. C. Wright Mills pointed out three components that form the Sociological Imagination: (1) History – how a society came to be, how it is changing, and how history is being made in it. (2) Biography – the nature of â€Å"human nature† in a society; what kind of people inhabits a particular society. (3) Social Structure – how the various institutional orders in a society operate, which ones are dominant, how are they held together, how they might be changing, etc. (http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/C. _Wright_Mills). The Promise of Sociology details how C. Wright Mills’ notion compels us to investigate into an individual’s biography and lifestyles, and place their findings within the surrounding circumstances – in which events occur in order to perceive the whole picture of the society in which the individual survives. According to him, what occurs in any individual’s life is interrelated with society as a whole. Mills mentioned that, presently individuals, men and women often feel that their private lives are series of traps in which they sense that they cannot surpass these traps (troubles) within their everyday lives. Hence, what people are aware of and what they try to do are usually, confined by their private cycle by which they live and because of their visions of powers were limited to different things or group – they move imaginably and remain as an observer to their surroundings. The more they are aware of those things (within their environment), the more they seem to feel being deceived. He stated that facts of contemporary history are also facts about the success and the failure of individual men and women. Since, when a society is industrialized, a peasant becomes a worker; a feudal lord is placed or becomes a businessperson. Moreover, when classes rise or fall, a man is employed or unemployed; when the rate of investment goes up or down, a man takes a new heart or goes broke – these few cases are facts that usually happen in present days. Until now, individuals usually do not determine the troubles they suffer in terms of historical change and institutional conflict. Like Emile Durkheim, as stated to his study regarding the historical transformation from mechanical to organic solidarity – what causes the change or transformation between them was the increase in dynamic density of the society. Because of a sudden transformation in every period, people had the difficulty to know or recognize disastrous changes due to historical facts that are now immediately becoming â€Å"merely history† – a history that now affects every man is world history because of its highly specialized. Mills also emphasized that, everywhere in the underdeveloped world, ancient ways of life are broken up and vague expectations become urgent demands. Everywhere in the overdeveloped world, the means of authority and of violence become total in scope and bureaucratic in form – like what Durkheim discussed about the LAW (the concept of his theory). This can be interrelated to the Restitutive Law, a characteristic of organic solidarity – where individuals in this more modern type of society were asked to comply with the law. Thus, Mills explained that it is not only information and skills of reason that the commonality need, since information frequently controls their attention and devastate their capacities to understand it. Like Georg Simmel’s theory, The Tragedy of Culture. Where in it, he argued that people are doomed to increasingly less understanding of the world they have created and are destined to be increasingly controlled by that world. Then what they need is the quality of mind that will help them to use information and to develop reason in order to achieve understandable summary of what is going on in the world and of what may be happening within them. Thus, Mills believed that knowledge, when properly used, could bring about change and the good society. Furthermore, he added that, if the good society was not yet here, it was primarily the fault of intellectuals – people of knowledge. Mills said, to understand this â€Å"Imagination† would be to see the connection between personal troubles and public issues. Where â€Å"Personal Troubles† are problems that are felt personally, which are caused by occurrences or feelings in an individual’s life; and â€Å"Public Issues† are issues that affect a group or mass of people with their roots associated within an organization or institution and history of a society. A person can become homeless for many reasons: a family member throws them out of their home because they do not contribute financially, or they become incapable of caring for themselves due to mental illness, or they become addicted to drugs and lose their home trying to support their habit. These are a few examples of personal troubles which most would think are brought about by the individual alone and therefore can be solved by them. However, when using Sociological Imagination, one can see that homelessness is also a social problem. Therefore, Charles Wright Mills made a significant contribution in, his integration of American pragmatism and European sociology which lead to innovative work in the sociology of knowledge; he completed a substantial range of studies in what was a short working life; and lastly, he provided a considerable and lasting intellectual stimulus to others. Sociological Imagination then, enables us to grasp history and biography and the relations between the two within society – that is its task and its â€Å"PROMISE† and this is the purpose of classical social analysts. Sociological Imagination is becoming the major common denominator of our cultural life and its signal feature (this quality of mind is found in the social and psychological sciences). It is not merely a fashion, it is a quality of mind that seem most dramatically to â€Å"PROMISE† an understanding of the intimate realities of ourselves in connection with larger social realities. It is not merely one quality of mind among the contemporary range of cultural sensibilities – it is the quality whose wider and more skilled use offers the promise that all such sensibilities and in fact, human reason itself will come to play a greater role in human affairs. In addition, you cannot understand the life of an individual or the history of society without the understanding personal troubles and public issues of the commonality.

Human Behaviour Psychology

According to Sigmund Freud, (1856-1939), human beings are just mechanical creatures, whom he views as prisoners of primitive instincts and powers, which we can barely control. He states that our purpose is to control these instincts and powers. Freud explained these concepts by comparing the human spirit to an iceberg. The visible part of the iceberg (spirit) is the conscious part, which consists of everything we know and remember and the thinking processes through which we function.The unconscious part is made up of everything we have ever learned or experienced, including that which has been â€Å"forgotten†. A part of these forgotten things are really gone, but the largest part of the unconscious has just been shut out, because it would be annoying to be consciously reminded of it.The influences of Helmholtz are also visible at other points. According to Freud, the material in the unconscious contains psychic energy. This psychic energy is constantly trying to get into the conscious part, while the conscious part keeps using energy to suppress undesirable discoveries. An expression of unknown powers is, for example, slips of the tongue. These expressions show that our unconscious was not strong enough to keep these powers outside the conscious part. Philosophers in the seventeenth and eighteenth century (like Descartes and Hobbes)  shared a mechanistic view.They thought that some of our actions are the result of internal or external forces, which are not under voluntary control. Hobbes, for example, claimed that underlying reasons for behavior are the avoidance of pain and the quest for pleasure. The extreme of the mechanistic view is the theory of instincts. An instinct is an innate biological force, which commands the organism to behave in a particular way.The main advocate of the instinct theory was the psychologist McDougall. He hypothesized that all thinking and behavior is the result of instincts, which are fixed from birth, but which can be a djusted by learning and experience. By changes and combinations of instincts he tried to explain the whole repertoire of human behavior. Human behavior psychology is one of the  theories of learning based upon the central idea that all human behaviors are attained through conditioning. This is also known as behaviorism. Conditioning happens through the interaction of human beings with the environment. According to human behavior psychology, human behavior can be studied in a systematic, methodical, recognizable and observable manner with no deliberation of internal mental states. Strengths of human behavior psychology/Behaviorism†¢Human behavior psychology is based upon observable and noticeable behaviors, thus easier to quantify, collect empirical data and information while conducting research.†¢Behavioral intervention, token economies, and discrete trial training are some of the effective remedial techniques which are all rooted intensively in human behavior psychology , also commonly known as behaviorism. These techniques are very helpful in changing maladaptive, detrimental or harmful behaviors in both children and adults. Criticisms of human behavior psychology/behaviorism†¢Many detractors point out that human behavior psychology or behaviorism is an exclusively one-dimensional approach to human behavior and thus such human behavioral theories do not account for free will and internal influences such as moods, thoughts, feelings, etc. †¢Behaviorism or human behavior psychology does not account for further types of learning, in particular learning that occurs lacking the use of reinforcements.Also individuals are able to adapt their human behavior when new information is brought in, even if a previous behavior pattern has been established over a period of time through reinforcement. Human behavior refers to the range of behaviors exhibited by humans and which are influenced by culture, attitudes, emotions, values, ethics, authority, ra pport, hypnosis, persuasion, coercion and/or genetics.The behavior of people (and other organisms or even mechanisms) falls within a range with some behavior being common, some unusual, some acceptable, and some outside acceptable limits. In sociology, behavior in general is characterised as having no meaning, being not directed at other people, and thus is the most basic human action. Behavior in this general sense should not be mistaken with social behavior, which is a more advanced action, as social behavior is behavior specifically  directed at other people.The acceptability of behavior depends heavily upon social norms and is regulated by various means of social control. Human behavior is studied by the specialised academic disciplines of psychiatry, psychology, social work, sociology, economics, and anthropology. Human behaviour is experienced throughout an individual’s entire lifetime. It includes the way they act based on different factors such as genetics, social n orms, core faith, and attitude. Behaviour is impacted by certain traits each individual has. The traits vary from person to person and can produce different actions or behaviour from each person.Social norms also impact behaviour. Due to the inherently conformist nature of human society in general, humans are pressurised into following certain rules and display certain behaviours in society, which conditions the way people behave. Different behaviours are deemed to be either acceptable or unacceptable in different societies and cultures. Core faith can be perceived through the religion and philosophy of that individual. It shapes the way a person thinks and this in turn results in different human behaviours.Attitude can be defined as â€Å"the degree to which the person has a favorable or unfavorable evaluation of the behavior in question.† One's attitude is essentially a reflexion of the behaviour he or she will portray in specific situations. Thus, human behavior is greatly influenced by the attitudes we use on a daily basis.

Hypertension Nursing Diagnosis 6 Care Plans for Any Patient

Hypertension Nursing Diagnosis 6 Care Plans for Any Patient SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Hypertension, or high blood pressure, is an issue that affects millions of people around the world. If not properly treated, hypertension can lead to serious issues, including heart attack or stroke. That means it’s imperative to have an accurate nursing diagnosis for hypertension as well as an effective care plan. After explaining what hypertension is, what causes it, and what common symptoms are, this guide explains six key hypertension nursing diagnoses. For each diagnosis, the NANDA definition, potential evidence, and desired outcomes are explained, as well as steps to take for the nursing intervention. Nursing Diagnosis for Hypertension: What Is It? Normal blood pressure is when blood pressure is lower than 120/80 mmHg most of the time. A patient is diagnosed with hypertension, the medical term for high blood pressure, when their blood pressure is 140/90 mmHg most of the time. There are several levels of hypertension: Normal Blood Pressure: Lower than 120/ 80 Prehypertension: 120-139/80-89 Stage 1 Hypertension: 140-159/90-99 Stage 2 Hypertension: 160+/100+ Hypertension can be dangerous because it can make the heart work harder to pump blood to the body, which can increase the risk of heart failure, stroke, and hardening of the arteries. What Causes Hypertension? The exact cause of hypertension is not often known. Primary (or essential) hypertension is when hypertension has no known cause, or there is no evidence to link it to a specific cause. Primary hypertension makes up about 90% of all hypertension cases. Secondary hypertension is high blood pressure that does have an identifiable cause. Potential causes of hypertension (primary or secondary) include: Being overweight or obese Smoking Genetics/family history of hypertension A diet high in salt Consuming more than 1-2 alcoholic drinks a day Stress Old age Lack of exercise Sleep apnea Kidney disease Thyroid disorders Signs and Symptoms of Hypertension Hypertension does not always cause symptoms; in fact, about a third of people who have hypertension don’t know they have it because of no or few symptoms. Below are some of the most common symptoms of hypertension: Headache Ringing or buzzing in the ears Fatigue Irregular heartbeat Confusion or dizziness Nosebleed Blurred vision Difficulty breathing Chest pain Blood in the urine Nursing Care Plans for Hypertension Once a patient is found to have high blood pressure, it’s important to follow the appropriate nursing diagnosis and nursing care plan for hypertension in order to reduce the effects of hypertension and keep the patient’s health and quality of life high. Below are six nursing care plans for hypertension. These six care plans cover the main issues associated with hypertension. Each one includes its own nursing diagnosis, NANDA definition, possible signs of evidence, desired outcome, and nursing interventions. Use the NANDA definition and potential evidence to determine the correct nursing care plan for hypertension. Some patients may require multiple care plans. Hypertension Nursing Diagnosis #1: Risk for Decreased Cardiac Output NANDA Definition: Inadequate blood pumped by the heart to meet metabolic demands of the body. Possibly Evidenced By: N/A. This intervention is used to in order to prevent decreased cardiac output from occurring. Desired Outcomes: Show stable cardiac rhythm and rate. Maintain blood pressure within an acceptable range. Participate in activities that lower blood pressure and cardiac load. Interventions: Check patient’s lab data (cardiac markers, blood cell count, electrolytes, ABGs, etc.) to determine contributing factors. Monitor and record blood pressure in both arms and thighs Measure blood pressure in both hands. Auscultation of breath sounds and heart rhythm. Observe patient’s skin color, temperature, and capillary refill time. Advise the patient on reducing sodium intake, if needed. Administer medication, if needed. Hypertension Nursing Diagnosis #2: Acute Pain (Typically Headache) NANDA Definition: Pain is whatever the experiencing person says it is, existing whenever the person says it does; an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience arising from actual or potential tissue damage or described in terms of such damage sudden or slow onset of any intensity from mild to severe with an anticipated or predictable end and a duration of. Possibly Evidenced By: Patient reports throbbing pain in head, most often upon awakening. Changes in appetite. Patient reports neck stiffness, blurred vision, dizziness, nausea, and/or vomiting. Desired Outcomes: Patient states they are no longer suffering from a headache and appear comfortable and pain-free. Interventions: Determine the specifics of the pain, such as intensity, where it is located, and how long it has been going on. Note the patient’s attitude towards pain and any history of substance abuse. Encourage rest during severe pain episodes. Recommend methods of relief, such as neck and back rubs, applying cool cloths to the forehead, and avoiding bright lights. Limit how much the patient moves around. Provide medication, if needed. Hypertension Nursing Diagnosis #3: Activity Intolerance NANDA Definition: Insufficient physiological or psychological energy to endure or complete required or desired daily activities. Possibly Evidenced By: Patient reporting weakness or fatigue. Abnormal heart rate as a result of activity. Exertional discomfort or dyspnea. Electrocardiogram (ECG) changes reflecting ischemia; dysrhythmias. Desired Outcomes: Patient participates in necessary and/or desired activities. Uses identified techniques to enhance activity tolerance. Reports a measurable increase in his/her tolerance for activity. Demonstrates a decrease in noticeable signs of intolerance. Interventions: Note each of the factors that contribute to fatigue (age, health, illness, etc.). Evaluate the patient’s degree of activity intolerance and when it occurs. Monitor how the patient responds to activity (pulse, heart rate, chest pain, dizziness, excessive fatigue, etc.). Explain energy conserving techniques (shower chairs, sitting to brush teeth, etc.). Assess any emotional factors that may be contributing to activity intolerance (such as depression or anxiety). Encourage the patient to engage in self-care and progressive activity when possible. Hypertension Nursing Diagnosis #4: Ineffective Coping NANDA Definition: Inability to form a valid appraisal of the stressors, inadequate choices of practiced responses, and/or inability to use available resources. Possibly Evidenced By: Patient states he/she is unable to cope; patient asks for help. Worry, irritability, anxiety, and/or depression as a result of hypertension diagnosis. Destructive behavior such as overeating, lack of appetite; excessive smoking/drinking, and/or alcohol abuse Desired Outcomes: Patient can identify his/her ineffective coping techniques and their consequences. Verbalizes awareness of own coping abilities. Identifies potentially stressful situations and takes steps to avoid or modify them. Shows the use of effective coping skills. Interventions: Determine what specific areas the patient has difficulty coping with. Assess the effectiveness of the patient’s current coping skills and where improvements can be made. Help the patient identify specific stressors and how to cope with them. Work with the patient to develop a care plan, and encourage participation in the plan. Help the patient identify and begin planning for necessary lifestyle changes. Encourage the patient to evaluate his/her priorities and goals in life. Hypertension Nursing Diagnosis #5: Imbalanced Nutrition (More Than Body Requirements) NANDA Definition: Intake of nutrients that exceeds metabolic needs. Possibly Evidenced By: Patient’s weight is 10%–20% more than ideal his/her height and frame. Reported or observed dysfunctional eating patterns. Desired Outcomes: Patient understands the relationship between hypertension and obesity. Initiates/maintains an appropriate exercise program. Shows changes in eating patterns, such as food choice and/or quantity, to attain a healthier body weight. Interventions: Assess the patient’s understanding of the relationship between hypertension and obesity. Discuss the relationship between hypertension and obesity with the patient. Discuss the need for a decreased caloric intake, as well as a limited intake of salt, sugar, and fat. Determine the patient’s desire to lose weight. Help the patient establish a realistic exercise plan. Help the patient establish a realistic nutrition plan. Refer the patient to a nutritionist, if needed. Hypertension Nursing Diagnosis #6: Knowledge Deficit NANDA Definition: Absence or deficiency of cognitive information related to a specific topic. Possibly Evidenced By: Verbalization of the problem. Patient requires information or more information, or he/she doesn’t understand the information given. Patient inaccurately follows instructions. Patient appears agitated, hostile, or upset when the condition and ways for managing it are discussed. Desired Outcomes: Patient can express his/her knowledge of the management and treatment of hypertension. Patient correctly uses the drugs they are prescribed and understand their side effects. Interventions: Determine what information the patient currently understands. Assess readiness and blocks to learning. Include the patient’s partner, if possible. Describe the nature of hypertension, how it affects different parts of the body, and how it can be treated. Avoid using the term â€Å"normal BP†. Instead use the term â€Å"well-controlled† to describe patient’s BP within desired limits. Discuss with the patient changes he/she can make in order to manage hypertension. Discuss the importance of maintaining a stable weight. Discuss the need for low-calorie diet, low in sodium to order. Help the patient create a schedule for taking medications. Direct the patient to other resources that can be used to better understand and manage hypertension. Review: Diagnosing and Treating Hypertension Hypertension, the medical term for high blood pressure, is an issue that can have serious and long-term health effects if it isn’t properly managed. Therefore, having an effective nursing care plan for hypertension is important. While it’s often difficult to pinpoint the cause of hypertension, high blood pressure may be caused by the weight, smoking, high sodium intake, and/or genetics, as well as other factors. Some symptoms of hypertension can include headache, dizziness, fatigue, difficulty breathing, and/or chest pain, although some patients with hypertension don’t show any symptoms. There are six key nursing diagnoses for hypertension. Risk for decreased cardiac output Acute pain (typically headache) Activity intolerance Ineffective coping Imbalanced nutrition (more than body requirements) Knowledge deficit For each nursing diagnosis for hypertension, it’s important to know the NANDA definition, possible signs of evidence, desired outcome, and nursing interventions. What's Next? Thinking about exploring a career in healthcare administration? Read our complete guide to getting a healthcare administration degree, with explanations for what levels of qualification you need for different careers.

5 Tips on Self-Publishing an Ebook

5 Tips on Self-Publishing an Ebook 5 Tips on Self-Publishing an Ebook While we’re still fond of the old-fashioned papery versions, no one can deny that digital self-publishing has made it much easier for authors to find an audience for their writing. But how does self-publishing an ebook work? And what do you need to do? We have a few tips to share. A library in tablet form! 1. Edit, Edit, and Edit Some More! If you want to impress readers, typos and bad formatting have to be avoided. But many ebooks fall into this trap due to a lack of editing and proofreading. Make sure your manuscript is ready before you even think about publishing. This means seeking feedback and redrafting until it is perfect, as well as formatting it correctly. Getting the final draft proofread is essential, too, so get in touch with us when you’re ready! 2. Cover Art We’re told not to judge a book by its cover, but not everyone listens to this advice. As such, you’ll want to think about how you present your ebook. Your cover art should look professional and work as a thumbnail. And remember to write a short, catchy blurb to use on the back cover. 3. Picking a Platform There are plenty of services self-published authors can use, including major industry players such as Kobo, Amazon KDP, and Smashwords. Amazon KDP also has a â€Å"Select† service, which offers extra benefits in return for publishing exclusively on Kindle. This can be great for new authors, but once you are more established, you may want to publish on multiple platforms to reach as wide an audience as possible. 4. Creating an Ebook File Some self-publishing services automatically create an ebook file when you upload a Microsoft Word document. However, for extra control over the process, you may want to do this yourself! The biggest decision here is which file format to use. A PDF is fine if your ebook will be read on computers, but for mobile devices you’ll need a dedicated ebook format. Your options here are ePub and MOBI (Amazon KDP only accepts MOBI files, so keep this in mind if using this service). You cannot create ePub or MOBI files in MS Word, but there is software available to do this. 5. Selling Your Ebook Once your ebook file is ready, you need to find an audience and promote your book! Part of this will be done on the publishing platform (e.g., writing a blurb, picking keywords, setting a price). The rest will come once your book is available for purchase. Think about setting up a blog and social media accounts, sending a free copy to reviewers, or limited giveaway and discount promotions. The point of all this is to get people talking, as word of mouth and positive reviews will help more than anything else!

Top 10 Grammatical and Spelling Errors of 2011

Top 10 Grammatical and Spelling Errors of 2011 In December 2010 I posted the Top 10 Grammar and Spelling Errors from 2010 and got a record number of hits on my blog and â€Å"likes† on facebook. In the past year as The Essay Expert, I’ve collected a new batch of errors.   I did repeat a couple of things from 2010 that were so persistent I just had to repeat myself! I write these lists in the hope that people will implement what they learn and produce better essays, better resumes, and overall better written materials.   Improved writing gets results when it comes to obtaining jobs, getting into school, landing new clients and keeping the customers youve got.   So read up! 10.   Advice vs. Advise Here’s a note from one of my loyal readers, Christine, who requested that I mention this common mix-up: â€Å"Advice is a noun. An example would be: ‘Brenda provided very useful advice regarding spelling errors.’ Advise is a verb. An example would be: ‘Brenda can you please advise your readers about similarly misused words?’† Thank you Christine for your contribution to my yearly list! 9.   Your vs. You’re You’re is a contraction for â€Å"you are.†Ã‚   If you’re using the word to mean â€Å"you are† (2 words), write it as a contraction.   E.g., Do you know that you’re about to miss the 5:00 train? Your is a possessive pronoun.   E.g., Your train is leaving in 2 minutes. 8.   Tenet vs. Tenant Even our president messed this one up.   A tenet is a belief or ideal of faith.   Tenants rent from landlords.   See The President Makes Grammatical Errors Too. 7.   Sign up vs. sign-up I see this one on the web all the time and it drives me a bit batty.   Sign up is a verb.   Sign-up is an adjective that modifies a noun like form or sheet.   Correct:   â€Å"Sign up here for news and updates† or Go to our sign-up page to register.   Incorrect: â€Å"Sign-up here for news and updates† or Go to our sign up page to register.   For similar examples of proper (and improper) use of phrasal verbs, read my article, Check out this Phrasal Verb Breakdown. 6.   Everyday vs. Every day I wrote a whole article about this one too: Common Grammatical Errors:   Everyday vs. Every Day.   Everyday is an adjective meaning â€Å"common† or â€Å"day-to-day.†   As I’m sure you know, people make everyday grammatical errors every day. 5. â€Å"This† without a referent Make sure that if you use the word This to start a sentence, you help your reader understand what you’re referring to!   The best practice is to use a referent after the word This.   Incorrect:   This will ensure your sentences are understood.   Correct:   This practice will ensure your sentences are understood. 4.   Verbage Verbage does NOT mean â€Å"words†!   Although the OED does have an entry for â€Å"verbage† as a â€Å"rare alternate spelling of verbiage,† Merriam-Webster does not even acknowledge the existence of the word. Verbiage, often misused as well, means excess language. The jury is out as to whether the phrase â€Å"excess verbiage† is redundant- but I’m sticking to it. 3.   Apostrophes (that’s not apostrophe’s!) to make plural nouns With some exceptions which I won’t go into here, plural nouns are formed by adding an s or es to the singular form of the noun–NOT by adding an apostrophe!   The plural of parent is parents; the plural of computer is computers; and the plural of Wednesday is Wednesdays.   No apostrophe needed!   Conversely, possessives ARE formed by adding an apostrophe s.   To speak about an author’s intent, for instance, use the apostrophe s. 2.   Myself Think for a few seconds before you use the word myself in place of me at the end of a sentence.   A sentence like â€Å"George was speaking to my friend Lucy and myself† is grammatically incorrect.   Replacing me with myself has become common, perhaps as an attempt to avoid using the word me.   Think about it.   You would say â€Å"George was speaking to me† so just say â€Å"George was speaking to my friend Lucy and me† NOT   George was speaking to my friend Lucy and myself.   The parts of speech don’t change just because another person was added to the sentence! 1. Comma splice I can’t tell you how often my clients string two full, complete sentences together with a comma.   This error is called a comma splice.   (See Writing Tips:   How to Use Commas and Semicolons Part 2.)   Here’s an example:   â€Å"Simply observing my surroundings was not enough for me, I needed to know how things worked and why they worked in that specific way.† The correct way to punctuate this sentence is â€Å"Simply observing my surroundings was not enough for me; I needed to know how things worked and why they worked in that specific way.† Two full sentences should most often get separated by a period or a semicolon; do NOT use a comma! I look forward to your comments and â€Å"likes.† Best wishes for a grammatically correct 2012!   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Brenda Category:UncategorizedBy Brenda BernsteinDecember 26, 2011 7 Comments Kimberly says: December 27, 2011 at 8:25 am Thank you so much for this article. Writing (and speaking) correctly is so important. Question: Verbiage: The verbiage of the document was very clear. Thank you for your expertise. Log in to Reply The Essay Expert says: December 27, 2011 at 10:33 am Thank you for your question Kimberly. In your sentence, I would say The meaning of the document was very clear, or The document was very clearly written, or The language in the document was very clear, or The author used very clear language in the document. Im sure there are many other choices as well! Log in to Reply Ann says: December 27, 2011 at 11:13 am You have helped me so much this year. You have cleared up many of the mistakes that I had made for years. Thank you for this and all your other posts. Log in to Reply The Essay Expert says: December 27, 2011 at 11:19 am Youre welcome Ann! Glad to be making a contribution! Log in to Reply The Essay Expert says: December 27, 2011 at 6:05 pm Thanks for the comment Joan. To me, George was speaking to my friend Lucy and me sounds nicely informal, as well as grammatically correct! Log in to Reply Penelope J. says: December 27, 2011 at 8:34 pm How about misuse of the word I as in George was speaking to my friend Lucy and I? More and more often, I seem to be hearing the pronoun I used in place of me. On occasion, even I get confused as to what is now considered correct grammar. Log in to Reply The Essay Expert says: December 27, 2011 at 8:52 pm Thanks Penelope. I covered that one in last years list so let it be this year 🙂 Log in to Reply

Robotics Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Robotics - Research Paper Example This paper reviews the unethical implications related to the use of these lethal weaponry. It provides a platform of reasoning for the policy makers, the political class, military personnel, scientists and the general public on the impending consequences of replacing humans in war with robots. It evaluates both the adverse effects of rapid change from humans to remote controlled robots and lately, to automated robots capable of sensing, hearing, communicating, acting and the extend of their necessities. In the evaluation and analysis, the review attempts to center around the ethical implications surrounding usage of automated robots in the modern warfare. Introduction and background The use of automated robots has a long history which began in the late 1980s when researchers got involved in the investigations on the use of multiple mobile robot systems. Previously, most researchers have carried out research which mainly concentrated on distributed problem solving mechanism. The main areas of concern by then were multi- robot motion plan, architectures for multi- robot cooperation and cellular robot system. Humanoid robots were first used in factories. They were capable to carry out production work without human assistance. The use of mobile and remote controlled robots in the military began back during the World War II and the cold war. The Germans through Goliath tracked mines and Soviet teletanks (a soviet built robot tanker) were used. The predator planes or drones were first used by the CIA officials in collection of intelligence in a fantasy environment. The aerial robots could collect intelligence for the military officials. Traditionally, robots were regarded as a topic for fiction by scientists in warfare. The modern concept of use of robots in the warfare began to develop with the use of mechanics and the introduction of electrical power. As time went on and many soldiers lost their lives in the battle field, there arose need to automate robots so that they could take the role of humans. This was after the rise of issues of human rights in the 1920s, although with concern and focus on the aggressor. This is the time that humanoid machines were developed and the myth of use of robots forgotten. It was now a reality (Parker 1-10). Robots are now gaining momentum in the modern warfare, although their use dates far back in the 19th century. Automated robots are proving to be efficient in the battle field as they reduce human loses and can easily penetrate in dangerous zones and perform effective and efficient. It is now common that robots in form of unmanned air vehicles are widely used by the US in destroying their enemies. This is evident in the Middle East wars, for instance Iraq, Afghanistan and collection of intelligence in South Korea among other regions of the world. Today, the drones used in war are controlled by pilots on the ground but with technological advancement, the pilots will be able to dial in when needed by the rob ots to take a specific action. The officer would be like managers in the future as robots undertake their roles. This trend of deploying autonomous robots in the battled field is quite worrying with regard to the ethical use of these systems in conflicts. This technological advancement generates more questions that are unanswered. The central question rests on the principle of discrimination of the combatant, non combatants and the organizational structure of the

The Global Enterprise Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

The Global Enterprise - Assignment Example As the paper explores UK has been marked as the ninth largest exporter of goods and services and fifth largest importer in the world. Some of the main industries which are operating in the UK currently are the financial services industries, aerospace industry, pharmaceutical industry, and the automotive industry. The major booster of the UK economy is the oil and gas production in the North Sea which is worth  £250 billion. London is the largest hub for the economic activities in the UK and in fact, in the whole of Europe. It is known as the world’s biggest financial center and largest city economy. As the research declares the tourism industry doesn’t only contribute to the GDP and bring foreign revenue to the country, but it also creates jobs and growth opportunities for businesses; this causes more production, more growth, and more employment which overall strengthens the economy. Tourism results in direct consumer spending which causes the economy to strengthen. UK is amongst the countries that are most desirable for tourists in the world. This is a dominating factor in making the economy powerful in the recent years and in the coming years, as predicted. The UK has enjoyed the strength and power of their economy ever since the Industrial Revolution took place. Even though there have been many competitions and challenges in the economies from USA and Germany, in 2015, UK still holds a great powerful position in the world economy as a global strength.

Values and Ethos of Learning Communities Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Values and Ethos of Learning Communities - Essay Example The role of leaders is to create learning community culture in which understandings achieved during the course of practice, nurtured and not forgotten. Educational leadership should encourage students and inspire their interest to learning and self-improvement. Different leadership strategies mentioned above should not be used in isolation. The role of educational leadership is to maintain the community and support the core purpose of increasing the ability of all students and preparing students for the future. Leaders must remember that their words and stance on issues impact others in both large and small ways (Sergiovanni 2000). The main educational leadership strategies include blending leadership strategy, institutional leaders, instructional leadership and transformational leadership, facilitative leadership, visionary, ethical and direct leadership (Educational Leadership& Management, n.d.). Direct leadership is what leaders do when they work directly to enhance teacher learning. Substitutes for leadership are the structures, pathways, and norms leaders build that allow, encourage, and enhance teacher learning. In K-12 public education, the choice of leadership strategy depends upon the extent to which it matches the nature of the task, the complexity of the community setting, and the standards of quality expected. Many learning communities choose instructional and transformational leadership which help educators to meet changing learning environment and community's policies. Where task complexity is simple, direct supervision involving telling students what to do, watching them do it, and making correc tions as needed might be an appropriate choice. But as complexity increases, strategies closer to mutual adjustment make more sense. These learning communities rely on purposing and shared values, standardizing knowledge and skills, and mutual adjustment as control strategies if they want to be successful (Educational Leadership, n.d.). Facilitative, visionary and ethical leadership allows educators to form and correct basic moral values and preferences of diverse student audience. Using these strategies, educators become more sophisticated in their ability to develop capacity for teaching and leading in schools creating effective learning communities based on trust and respect. The task of facilitative leadership is to encourage the involvement of students at all educational levels. Visionary leadership is aimed to create a certain vision of culture and values shared by a particular community. This is one of the most important strategies which help educators to prepare students for various roles in their respective communities. Critics argue that ethical leadership "should have and be willing to act on a definite sense of ethical standards" (Educational Leadership& Management, n.d.). K-12 community leaders should create an effective environment and control that students are well served, and that teachers are suppor ted in their efforts in behalf of students. A leader's role is to engage teachers in determining and articulating a vision of excellence for all students. Communication in K-12 public education should include conversation about school issues and the needs of children with meetings to analyze data and plan

International management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 2

International management - Essay Example The organizations worldwide face a number of challenges when they decide to go global. This is a common problem that they face since they do not have any prior knowledge or understanding of the new territory that they will do their business from. However, what best they can do is to find out and research the strengths and weaknesses of this area and hence upon getting the much-needed knowledge, base their theories and strategies in a much more effective and efficient manner. This will help one and all to better understand what the new territory, region or country offers the business and the people associated with it. The best thing is that the benefits and disadvantages are determined even before the organization goes the global way and thus it saves itself from embarrassment which it might face without having the proper knowledge and adequate research within it. The ways and means that are usually taken care of whilst managing a business are aplenty and it is only up to the top mana gement within a company that the same can be handled in several different methods. They are the ones to decide as to what is the real manner in which the firm’s operations would be handled as well as who will head the respective departments, lead the business strategic units and act as legal and media representatives of the said business.

Interpretation of Ethical Systems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Interpretation of Ethical Systems - Essay Example Basing on ethical formalism, this act unacceptable because of the evil intentions and therefore, I would go ahead to fire him. The habit of employees stealing from workplace leads to losses. When this has happens, the employer is left with the burden of reviving the business alone or with the help of insurance companies, after a tedious and lengthy follow-up process. Being that the consequence of his action was going to hurt others, I will be justified to fire my classmate. All religions have some believes/commands that provide them with moral guidance. Despite the differences in these believes, all religions prohibit the willful commitment of wrong actions against others. My classmate is therefore not justified, no matter his type of religion. According to the natural law, what is good is what is natural and morality is what agrees with the natural world (Pollock, 2004). Stealing is an immoral act and therefore, an act against all people regardless of their

International management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 2

International management - Essay Example The organizations worldwide face a number of challenges when they decide to go global. This is a common problem that they face since they do not have any prior knowledge or understanding of the new territory that they will do their business from. However, what best they can do is to find out and research the strengths and weaknesses of this area and hence upon getting the much-needed knowledge, base their theories and strategies in a much more effective and efficient manner. This will help one and all to better understand what the new territory, region or country offers the business and the people associated with it. The best thing is that the benefits and disadvantages are determined even before the organization goes the global way and thus it saves itself from embarrassment which it might face without having the proper knowledge and adequate research within it. The ways and means that are usually taken care of whilst managing a business are aplenty and it is only up to the top mana gement within a company that the same can be handled in several different methods. They are the ones to decide as to what is the real manner in which the firm’s operations would be handled as well as who will head the respective departments, lead the business strategic units and act as legal and media representatives of the said business.

The Planning Idea Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Planning Idea - Essay Example The main feature in planning is continuous communication. The planning process is vast and combines other fields such as economics, environment, and engineering (Fincher and Iverson 5). This paper will explore the issue of urban planning and discuss planning theories. Planning involves both policy and physical planning. When planning, social and cultural influences should also be considered and coordinated. The planning theory contributes to the development of planning practices in three ways. One is the philosophical way that involves planners’ involvement in the planning practice. The second is the adaption way which includes the factors that affect or limit planning practices like time and complexity of the plan (Hall 4). The third one is the translation way that incorporates skills, ideas and knowledge from different fields into the plan. There are four types of planning theories. Planning theory is based on practical experience and has its focus on a particular society or nation. Theory two proposes planning strategies to planners which they can use while making or assisting in plan decisions. Third is the theory that focuses on the subjects and objects of the plan. The fourth theory incorporates all the three theories of planning and explains the details of planning practice. The planning theory continues to play a vital role of evolving in response to the dynamic societal needs (Friend and Hickling 3). Urban planning theory has faced criticism from academics and practitioners as being confused and impractical. Planning functions have played a crucial role in response to the ever changing society needs and requirements. Many planning theories had neglected the interest of environmental conservation. They had ignored the public interest and produced unsatisfying results. They have neglected the importance of diversity and environment conservation. My personal theory will take into

Summary of Frank Sinatra Essay Example for Free

Summary of Frank Sinatra Essay Growing up on the streets of Hoboken, New Jersey, made Frank Sinatra determined to work hard to get ahead. Starting out as a saloon singer in many down-trotted bars, he got his first major break in 1935 as part of The Hoboken Four on a popular radio show, Major Bowes Amateur Hour. In 1939 Sinatra caught the attention of Tommy Dorsey and his orchestra. He sang the first ever No. 1 song on Billboard, Ill Never Smile Again. That same year he married Nancy Barbato with whom he had three children, Nancy, Tina and Frank, Jr. Sinatra. In 1942 Sinatra started his earnest solo career and instantly found fame as the number one singing star among teenage music fans of the era, especially the young women and girls who were referred to as the Bobbysoxers. In 1944 Sinatras acting career was beginning and he made a statement with a lead role in Anchors Aweigh (1945) alongside Gene Kelly. The following year Sinatra was awarded a special Oscar for his part in a short film against intolerance called The House I Live In (1946). His career on high, Sinatra went from, recording his first album (The Voice of Frank Sinatra) at Columbia and starring in several movies. A scandalous public affair with Ava Gardner broke up Sinatras marriage. A second marriage to Gardner followed in 1951 was the start of a down spiral. Record sales dwindling, live appearances failing to sell out, and Sinatras vocal chords hemorrhaging live on stage their toll. Sinatra continued to act. Receiving the musical drama Meet Danny Wilson (1951) and fighting for, and winning, the coveted role of Maggio in From Here to Eternity (1953) increased popularity. He won an Oscar for Best Supporting actor and followed this with a profound performance as the deranged assassin John Baron in Suddenly (1954) and Academy Award nomination for Best Actor, in the powerful drama The Man With the Golden Arm (1955). On record Sinatra was also back on a high having signed with Capitol records and riding high on the charts with the album In the Wee Small Hours ( 1953) and the single Young at Heart (1954). Throughout the 1950s Sinatra not only recorded a slew of critically and commercially successful albums, his acting career remained on a high as he gave strong and memorable performances in such films as Guys and Dolls (1955), The Joker is Wild (1957), Kings Go Forth (1957) and Some Came Running (1958). He also dabbled with producing in the 1950s, first bringing the western Johnny Concho to the big screen and, along with Frank Capra, A Hole in the Head (1959), in which he co-starred with Edward G. Robinson. Continuing this trend into the 1960s, Sinatra produced Oceans 11 (1960), Sergeants 3 (1963, and Robin and the 7 Hoods (1964) as well as starting his own record label, Reprise Records, in 1961. Sinatra turned 50 in 1965 and, in many ways, his career once again peaked, recording the album September of My Years which won the Grammy for album of the year and making his directorial debut with the anti-war film None but the Brave (1965) His final acting performance in 1987 was as a retired detective seeking vengeance on the killers of his granddaughter in an episode of Magnum P.I. entitled â€Å"Laura†. On stage, Sinatra was as prolific as ever, playing both nationally and internationally to sold out crowds in stadiums and arenas. In 1993 Sinatra stepped back into Capitol studios to record his final albums, Duets and Duets II (both of which were highly successful) Sinatra passed away on May 14th 1998. Frank Sinatra was a legendary Hollywood icon, a profound film actor, an iconic musician, and a well known ladies man. There were so many sides to Sinatra, that it’s hard to categorize him under any label. He was always himself, always living to the fullest. He was (like many celebrities) loved and hated, but that never mattered to him. Frank didn’t need anyone to like him. All he wanted was someone to listen and someone to care. That’s exactly what he got. â€Å"You gotta love livin, baby, cause dyin is a pain in the ass.† -Frank Sinatra

Organopalladium Reagents and Intermediates

Organopalladium Reagents and Intermediates Joà £o T. V. Matos Table of contents Table of contents 1. Introduction 2. Organopalladium reagents and intermediates 2.1. The characteristic features for the use of palladium in organometallic chemistry 2.1.1. Oxidation States of Palladium 2.2. Preparation of organopalladium reagents and intermediates 2.2.1. Ï€-Ally Palladium Complexes 2.2.2. Cyclic aryl palladium complexes 2.2.3. Palladium Olefin and Diene Complexes 2.2.4. Palladium-TV-Heterocyclic Carbene Complexes 2.3. Methods for structural characterisation of organopalladium reagents 2.3.1. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 2.3.2. Infrared spectroscopy 2.3.3. X-Ray crystallography 3. Applications of palladium-catalysed organic reactions 3.1. Palladium-catalysed carbon-carbon cross coupling reactions 3.1.1. The Heck reaction 3.1.2. The Stille Reaction 3.1.3. The Suzuki reaction 3.1.4. The Negishi Reaction 3.1.5. The Sonogashira Reaction 3.1.6. The Tsuji–Trost Reaction 4. Final remarks Bibliography 1. Introduction Organometallic chemistry is discipline devoted to the study, not only of the compounds and intermediate species with metal-carbon bonds, but also the comprehensive study of all transformations and interaction between organic molecules and a inorganic metal from the main groups, transition series, lanthanides and actinides (Astruc, 2007; Crabtree, 2005). This interface discipline, between classical organic chemistry, coordination chemistry and inorganic chemistry, has proved, in the last decades, very useful to provide some important conceptual insights, new structures, and catalysts for different applications areas of organic synthesis, both in the academic and in the industrial fields (Crabtree, 2005). Organometallic chemistry also began to have a major impact on other areas such as: biochemistry with the discovery of enzymes that carry out organometallic catalysis; chemistry of materials due to the proprieties of some organometallic compounds to be used was precursors for depositin g materials on various substrates via thermal decomposition of the metal compound; nanoscience and nanotechnology due to the proprieties of some organometallic compounds to be used precursors for nanoparticles; and green chemistry by minimizing both energy use and chemical waste of several organic synthesis (Crabtree, 2005). The first organometallic substance to be prepared was synthesized in 1760, in a military pharmacy in Paris, by Louis Claude Cadet de Gassicourt. This French chemist, who was working on cobalt-containing inks, used arsenic-containing cobalt salts for their preparation. From this work was resulted the so-called â€Å"Cadet’s fuming liquid† which contains a mixture of tetramethyldiarsine and cacadoyl oxide (the first documented organometallic compound) by carrying out the following reaction (Equation (1)): (1) However, despise several organometallic compound discovered, along the eighteenth and nineteenth century’s, the truly â€Å"boom† of organometallic chemistry only occurred during the third quarter of the twenty century, in especially in countries like the United States of America, England and Germany (Astruc, 2007). One of the facts that contributed to this was the recognition of the potential of some d-block transition metals (i.e. nickel, palladium, platinum, rhodium, and ruthenium) organometallic reagents and intermediates as superior catalysts for new bond formation (i.e. carbon-carbon bonds) and their unique property to activate a wide range of organic molecules (Negishi, 2002; Schlosser, 2013). In this review, one of these d-block transition metals and their organometallic reagents based and intermediates will be put in broader perspective, the palladium. The use of this metal, has truly revolutionized the organic synthesis field over the last three decades, being nowadays, the most widely used element in organic synthesis (Crabtree, 2005). Probably the most notable example of its importance of the palladium intermediates as catalyst in organic synthesis is the attribution, by the Swedish Nobel Committee, of the 2010 Nobel Prize in Chemistry to Richard F. Heck, Ei-ichi Negishi, and Akira Suzuki for their work in palladium-catalysed cross couplings in organic synthesis (Nobelprize.org, 2013). This review will attempt to highlight some of the outstanding properties of the organopalladium reagents and intermediates, identifying the main ways of preparation of these components, some of the most important analysis procedures to obtain their structural characterization, and prese nt some of the numerous applications and reactions where these compounds play an important role. 2. Organopalladium reagents and intermediates 2.1. The characteristic features for the use of palladium in organometallic chemistry Palladium is a chemical element discovered and isolated in 1803 by William Hyde Wollaston who named it after the asteroid Pallas, which was discovered a year before. Is a transition metal and belong to the 10th group, 5 period, and d-block of the periodic table. This atom, with atomic number of 46 and average atomic weight of 106.4 could occur naturally in seven isotopes, which includes six stable isotopes. Palladium, is nowadays one of the most versatile, selective, ubiquitous and significant metals used for organic synthesis and had truly impacted this field in the last four decades (Negishi, 2002). This fact is mainly because no other transition metals can offer such versatile to the abundance of possibilities of carbon–carbon bond formation that the palladium reagents and intermediates can offer (Tsuji, 2004). Furthermore, despite the palladium complexes are, in several reactions, highly reactive are stable enough to be used as recyclable reagents and intermediates, in catalytic processes (Negishi, 2002). In this sense palladium-mediated processes have become essential in several applications, namely in the syntheses of natural products, polymers, agrochemicals, and pharmaceuticals (Caspi, 2008). Despite the palladium being a rare and very expensive noble metal, there are several characteristic features and chemical properties which make reactions involving palladium reagents and intermediates particularly suitable in organic synthesis. One of the most important characteristic feature appears to be its moderately large atomic size factor which contribute to the moderate stability of its compounds and their controlled but wide-ranging reactivity leading (Negishi, 2002; Tsuji, 2004). Furthermore, its moderated size associated with high d-electron count, and its relatively high electronegativity (2.20 and 1.57 in Pauling and Sanderson scales, respectively), classified this element as â€Å"soft† element, which makes it a real alternative to the more traditional and â€Å"hard† organometallic reagents, such as the magnesium (Grignard) and lithium compounds (Negishi, 2002). Other important characteristic features is the tolerance from the palladium reagents and inter mediates to several functional groups (i.e. carbonyl and hydroxy groups) and which means that the palladium-catalysed reactions can be carried out without protection of these functional groups (Tsuji, 2004). Furthermore, palladium reagents and intermediates have a low tendency to undergo one-electron or generate radical in the reaction processes, reducing the possibility of unwanted side reactions and making the palladium-catalysed reactions quite clean and selective. Finally, another important feature, especially in the green chemistry context is their lack of toxicity problems associated and therefore they do not require too many special handling cares (Negishi, 2002). 2.1.1. Oxidation States of Palladium The most common oxidation states of palladium are 0, +1, +2, +3, and +4 (Pd(0), Pd(I), Pd(II), Pd(III), and Pd(IV), respectively). The palladium oxidation states of +1, +2, +3, and +4 correspond to d9, d8, d7, and d6 electron configurations, respectively, as shown in Figure 1. Figure 1.Representative d electron configuration of Pd(I), Pd(II), Pd(III), and Pd(IV) oxidation states (based on reference (Mirica and Khusnutdinova, 2013)) The vast majority of palladium-catalysed reactions, until the beginning of the twentieth-one century, were only focused in the reactions involving Pd(0) and Pd(II) oxidation states, since Palladium strongly favours this two oxidation states (Mirica and Khusnutdinova, 2013; Negishi, 2002). Despite the bulk of the organopalladium literature is centered on the use of Pd(0) and Pd(II) oxidation states, already in 2002, in the Handbook of Organopalladium Chemistry for Organic Synthesis, Negishi point out that the utilization of other oxidation states (Pd(II), Pd(III), or Pd(IV)), although it is still very rare, could become o be very significant in the future (Negishi, 2002). More than ten years later, and with the rapid evolution in the organopalladium chemistry, complexes with palladium in these oxidation states, especially the Pd(IV), have demonstrated their potential and they improved significantly their role in organic synthesis. Although the development of Pd(IV) chemistry has just begun, this has already made possible the development of a number of significant new transformations. Pd(IV)-catalysed reactions usually show a high selectivity and synthetic robustness, and in almost all of them the use of catalysts are generated in situ from commercially available palladium salts, making them particularly attractive from the viewpoint of cost effectiveness (Muà ±iz, 2009). However, by comparison with the Pd(0), Pd(III), or Pd(IV), complexes of odd-electron Pd(I) and Pd(III) oxidation states are much less used. Yet, despite the study of this oxidation states remains in its infancy, Pd(I) complexes have already been employed as pre-catalysts in organic synthesis (Canty, 2011) and despite the potential role of Pd(III) intermediates in catalysis is currently more speculative, this subject beginning to emerge considerable interest, as can be highlighted by the different articles and reviews on the subject (Canty, 2011; Mirica and Khusnutdinova, 2013; Powers and Ritter, 2011). 2.2. Preparation of organopalladium reagents and intermediates In the majority of the organic reactions that use palladium as catalyst, the organopalladium species are generated in situ during the course of the reaction, instead of a preparation of stoichiometric organopalladium reagents, ensuring that only a catalytic amount of palladium is used. In these cases, the reaction mechanisms should include a step were the organopalladium species are formed, the steps in which the formed species react with other reagents to generate a particular product(s), and the step in which organopalladium species are regenerated in a catalytically active form (Carey and Sundberg, 2007). There are several types of organopalladium intermediates extensively used in reactions with considerable importance in several synthetic applications. As reviewed by Schlosser (2013), more than 64000 entities with a palladium-carbon bond are known. Consequently, in this review, only the preparation of some of the most common organopalladium reagents and intermediates will be addressed. As special cares to have in the preparation of these complexes, palladium complexes, unlike the organometallics from the Group I and Group II, are not water sensitive. Consequently, in almost cases, strict exclusion of water is not necessary. Although, some reactions can beneficiate from the presence of water traces or can even be performed in water as solvent or co-solvent. Furthermore, palladium complexes could be quite to moderately air stable. Consequently, it is advised to conduct reactions using these complexes under an inert gas (i.e. argon or nitrogen) (Schlosser, 2013). 2.2.1. Ï€-Ally Palladium Complexes One of the most important organopalladium intermediates are Ï€-allyl complexes. The most common Ï€-allyl palladium complex, the dimer [(n3-C3H5)PdCl]2, was discovered more than 50 years, serves as starting material for a number of other complexes (Schlosser, 2013). Ï€-allyl complexes, can be synthesize from Pd(II) salts, allylic acetates, and other compounds with the potential of leaving groups in an allylic position, or can be prepared directly from alkenes by reaction with PdCl2 or Pd(O2CCF3)2. In this second scenario, the reaction occurs by electrophilic attack on the Ï€ electrons followed by loss of a proton, as represented in Scheme 1 (Carey and Sundberg, 2007). Scheme 1.Synthesize of Ï€-Ally Palladium Complexes by electrophilic attack on the Ï€ electrons (based on reference (Carey and Sundberg, 2007)). Due to the low electrophilic power, these complexes usually reacted with less-substituted allylic terminus of a variety of nucleophiles. After this reaction occurs, the resulting organopalladium intermediate breaks down by elimination of Pd(0) and H+, as described in Scheme 2 (Carey and Sundberg, 2007). Scheme 2.The overall transformation of the allylic substitution. (based on reference (Carey and Sundberg, 2007)). 2.2.2. Cyclic aryl palladium complexes Another important organopalladium intermediates are the cyclic aryl palladium complexes, or palladacycles (Schlosser, 2013). This complexes, are quite relevant role in cascade transformations leading to complex molecular architectures, in the proximally) directed arylation reactions, and in several intramolecular cross-coupling reactions (Beletskaya and Cheprakov, 2004). Palladacycles intermediates can easily be obtained by palladation reactions starting from Pd(II) salts and an arene having a directing group (Schlosser, 2013). Scheme 3.Palladacycles intermediates obtained by palladation reactions (R = NR2, PR2, etc., and Y = alkyl, aryl, etc.). Based on reference (Schlosser, 2013). In the cases where the directing group is an amine (e.g., benzyl or homobenzyl amines) or a phosphine (e.g., aryl phosphines), as represented in the Scheme 3A, the mechanism occurs by an electrophilic addition to the arene, and could include Pd(IV) intermediates. On the other hand, as represented in the Scheme 3B, Alkylarenes can also be substrates for palladacycles, in which, the activation of sp3-carbons next to an arene is presumably forced by agostic interactions (Schlosser, 2013). 2.2.3. Palladium Olefin and Diene Complexes The major group of organopalladium intermediates are the palladium Olefin and Diene Complexes. Pd(II) complexes having olefin ligands (i.e. 1,5-cyclooctadiene (COD), norbornene, or norbornadiene) can be obtained by reaction of Pd(II) chloride in the presence of the appropriate alkene (Carey and Sundberg, 2007; Schlosser, 2013). In this reaction the alkenes react with Pd(II) to give Ï€ complexes that are subject to nucleophilic attack. However, the products formed from the resulting intermediates are depending of the specific reaction conditions used. In the first case, represented in Scheme 4 as the path a, palladium can be replaced by hydrogen under reductive conditions. On the other hand, in the absence of a reducing agent occurs the obliteration of the Pd(0) and a proton, leading to the substitution of a vinyl hydrogen by the nucleophile, as represented in path b of the Scheme 4. (Carey and Sundberg, 2007). Scheme 4.Synthesize of the Palladium Olefin complexes. Based on reference (Carey and Sundberg, 2007). However, it is important to note that several of these palladium Olefin and Diene complexes are already commercially available (Schlosser, 2013). 2.2.4. Palladium-TV-Heterocyclic Carbene Complexes Palladium-TV-Heterocyclic Carbene (NHC) complexes have been recently introduced as powerful ligands for palladium. These NHC complexes have as main advantage the fact that they are quite stable, easy to handle, air-stable and can be easily be prepared from the ligand and palladium precursors (Chartoire et al., 2012; Schlosser, 2013). The NHC-based palladium complexes have been used very successfully for a series of different reactions, namely some cross-coupling reactions and aryl amination (Chartoire et al., 2012; Schlosser, 2013). In Figure 2 are shown some examples of these NHC-palladium catalysts, already used to ensure the efficiency of those reactions. Figure 2.Examples of NHC-palladium complexes: A) [Pd(NHC)(R-allyl)Cl] developed by Nolan; B) [Pd-PEPPSI-NHC] developed by Organ; and C) [Pd(IPr*)(cinnamyl)Cl] developed by Chartoire et al.. Figure adapted from the reference (Chartoire et al., 2012). 2.3. Methods for structural characterisation of organopalladium reagents The identification and structural characterization of the organopalladium reagents and intermediates, is of utmost importance in organic synthesis field, to understand the behaviour and proprieties of these compounds. However, it can be quite challenging and somewhat tricky task to accomplish. To achieve the identification and structural characterization of the organopalladium reagents and intermediates, the main analytical methods used rely on the complementarity of information provide from spectroscopic and crystallographic techniques, such as multinuclear nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy, and x-ray crystallography. 2.3.1. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy Multinuclear NMR spectroscopy is certainly the key methodology to elucidate molecular structures in solution. Consequently, just as has already happened in organic chemistry or biochemistry, it is now routine to measure NMR spectra of diamagnetic organometallic and coordination compounds. Nowadays, on a routine basis, organometallic chemists daily measure hundreds or even thousands NMR spectra, not only to identify and characterize the molecular structure of a given organometallic but also to verify if a reaction has taken place (Pregosin, 2012). The most investigated active nuclei in organometallic chemistry are, by far, 1H and 13C. However, there are several others readily measurable spin =  ½ nuclei, such as 15N, 19F and 31P, that provide structurally valuable chemical shifts and a diagnostic spin-spin coupling constants. Furthermore, often the measure of 1H and 13C NMR spectra alone may not be sufficient, especially when it is necessary understand the immediate environment of the metal canter and these probes are spaced apart from the metal (Pregosin, 2012). NMR is therefore widely applied for analysis to organopalladium reagents. For example, 1H NMR is the most reliable characterization technique which can be used on hydridopalladium complexes (Negishi, 2002). Moreover, there are several examples in the literature of the application of multinuclear NMR to organopalladium complexes (Leznoff et al., 1999; Paà ±ella et al., 2006; Satake et al., 2000; Schlosser, 2013). Even the 15N, and 31P NMR methodologies, are also are widely used in the characterization of organopalladium reagents, being possible to find studies in this field with more than thirty years (Motschi et al., 1979). 2.3.2. Infrared spectroscopy Infrared (IR) spectroscopy provides the spectral information corresponding to vibrational modes of a molecule. The position of the bands in the Infrared (IR) spectrum depends mainly of the on the strength of the bond(s) involved as measured and the reduced mass of the system calculated using the atomic weights of the atoms involved in the molecule (Crabtree, 2005). Consequently, IR spectroscopic are very useful to obtain a fast confirmation of the presence of some functional groups (i.e. C=O, C=N). However, this method should not be used as a sole characterization technique, since, for example, although the hydride ligands from the hydridopalladium complexes are expected to have Ï…(Pd-H) stretches occurring in the distinctive region of 1950–2060 cm-1 in the infrared spectrum, they are often very weak signals and are also rather dependent on the trans effect of the opposite ligand (Negishi, 2002). 2.3.3. X-Ray crystallography The structural characterization in the solid state, namely that provided by X-ray crystallography is an extremely important part of organometallic chemistry. In the method, a beam of monochromatic X-rays pass through a single crystal of the sample. Consequently, this beam is diffracted in the crystal in various angles, providing in photography the pattern of the crystal spots. The intensity of this set of diffracted beams will depend on the nature and arrangement of the atoms in the unit cell. Thus, the intensities provide the information about the locations of the atoms in the unit cell, while the relative positions of the spots on the photography film carry the information about the arrangement of the unit cells in space (Negishi, 2002). The results of an X-ray structural determination should be represented as a diagram showing the positions of all the atoms in the molecule, as represented in the Figure 3 for two different organopalladium complex (i.e.{Pd[(p-(Noxyl-tert-butylamino- 2-)phenyl)diphenylphosphine]2Cl2}, and{(ÃŽ ·-C3H5)Pd [(p-(Noxyl-tert-butylamino-2-)phenyl)diphenylphosphine](Cl)}) (Leznoff et al., 1999). Figure 3.A typical X-ray crystallographic characterisation of two different organopalladium complex (from the reference (Leznoff et al., 1999)) However, in addition to being assured that organometallic compounds (i.e. organopalladium complex) allow the growth of crystals to be used in this technique, there are some limitations than need to be overcome. First of all, since the X-ray diffraction results are usually based on one only crystal, is necessary to ensure that this crystal is representative of the bulk and free of impurities. One way to check that each crystal is the same material as the bulk of the sample is using the information from the IR spectrum. Furthermore, it is necessary to ensure that the solid state is really the same as the structure of the same material in solution, since several organometallic complexes exist as one isomer in solution but as another in the solid state. This point is especially relevant when the solid state X-ray results are compared with the solution NMR data. Again, in this aspect IR spectroscopy can be also very useful because we can obtain a spectrum both in solution and in the solid state, which emphasizes the need for the information complementarity of these characterization techniques (Negishi, 2002). 3. Applications of palladium-catalysed organic reactions As already pointed out, since the second half of the twenty century, palladium had increased its relevance and role in organic chemistry, in particular in metal-catalysed reactions. Palladium, together with some other transition metals, have the unique property to activate a wide range of organic molecules and thus to catalyse various bond formations. This metal, by far is the most commonly used metal, is thus of utmost importance in a wide range of applications, not only in academic circles but also in industry (Schlosser, 2013). An example of this application is the Wacker process. This reaction, discovered in the 1960s, uses catalytic amounts of palladium to oxidize ethylene to acetaldehyde, and is still widely used in industrial applications (in 2007, was generating four million tons of acetaldehyde per year (Astruc, 2007)). Another factor that has emphasized the importance of using palladium as a catalyst of organic reactions in academic and industrial applications was the introduction of several palladium-catalysed carbon-carbon cross coupling reactions. This fact can easily be verified by more than 200 natural products and biologically active molecules synthesized making use of the Heck reaction (section 3.1.1) and the â€Å"ton scale† fine chemicals produced in the industry using the Suzuki reaction (section 3.1.3) (Schlosser, 2013). Furthermore, these reactions also allowed the total syntheses of molecules used in the in the production of several medical drugs such as Naproxen (anti-inflammatory drug), Taxol (anti-cancer drug), (Z)-tamoxifen (anti-cancer drug), and morphine (Carey and Sundberg, 2007; Schlosser, 2013). 3.1. Palladium-catalysed carbon-carbon cross coupling reactions The introduction, in the last quarter of the twenty century, of palladium as catalyst in carbon-carbon cross coupling reactions, a new paradigm for carbon–carbon bond formation has emerged allowing the assembly of highly complex molecular structures and completely changed how the chemical synthesis is performed (Nicolaou et al., 2005). The capability of this reactions to forge carbon–carbon bonds between or within functionalized and sensitive substrates have received an enormous amount of attention among the synthetic chemists, and their scope has been very significantly expanded during the last several years, not only in not only in total synthesis but also in medicinal, biology and nanotechnology (Nicolaou et al., 2005). In general, the palladium-catalysed carbon-carbon cross coupling reactions can be represented by the Scheme 5. However, in this equation, for any given combination of R1 and R2, several parameters should be changed or optimized, namely the metal countercation M, the leaving group X, the palladium catalyst, the introduction of some additives or co-catalysts, the solvent, and even others parameters such as temperature, time, concentration, and mode of addition (Schlosser, 2013). Scheme 5.Geral model of the palladium-catalysed carbon-carbon cross coupling reactions (based on reference (Schlosser, 2013)). The characteristics of an ideal palladium-catalysed cross-coupling reaction can be listed as follows (Schlosser, 2013): Varied and inexpensive methods to set up the coupling substrate functionality from commercially available starting materials Easily activated high-yielding coupling under mild conditions; Generation of the minimal amount of by-product preferably by employing low-molecular-weight donors; Excellent functional group compatibility; General stability of the cross-coupling substrates; Low toxicity of precursors, substrates, and generated by-products. In this review, despite the extremely long list of all the possible carbon-carbon cross coupling reactions involving Palladium as catalyst, it will focus on the reactions that embody several of the above mention characteristics and are most commonly used namely, the Heck, Stille, Suzuki, Sonogashira, Tsuji–Trost, and the Negishi reactions. These reactions, have truly revolutionized the organic synthesis field (Nicolaou et al., 2005), and, as already mentioned, should be noted that the authors and works that gave birth to three of these reactions (Heck, Negishi, and Suzuki) were recently awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry 2010 (Nobelprize.org, 2013), which emphasizes even more the importance of these reactions. 3.1.1. The Heck reaction The Heck cross coupling reaction has been developed independently by Mizoroki, (Mizoroki et al., 1971), and improved by Heck (Heck and Nolley, 1972) in the early seventies of the twentieth century. However, it took more than a decade for the potential of this reaction, be explored by the wider synthetic organic community, namely with the development of catalytic asymmetric Heck reactions (Nicolaou et al., 2005). The Heck reaction, as presented in Scheme 6, can be broadly defined as the palladium-catalysed coupling of a vinyl, aryl, benzyl halide or a trifluoromethanesulfonate (OTf) group with an olefin to yield products which result from the substitution of a the hydrogen atom in the olefin coupling partner (Nicolaou et al., 2005). Scheme 6.The overall mechanism of the Heck reaction (R4 = aryl, benzy

Pacifism & Conscientious Objection :: essays research papers fc

During the 20th century America has been involved in many conflicts that have led to war or the taking up of arms against other humans and nations. Although the vast majority of Americans have blindly accepted these actions throughout the century, more and more people are seeing war as morally wrong. Reasons for this epiphany are based off of a variety of things and encompass many other aspects related to war and killing examples include: due to moral and ethical principles, objection to war due to strong religious beliefs, the objection to violence due to the same ideals above, objection to the government's use of force, and the objection to the use of weapons of mass destruction. Many of the core beliefs of conscientious objection derive from the teachings or beliefs of pacifism. Pacifism has been a system of thinking and living for hundreds of years, and, in the 20th century many objection and pacifistic movements have sprung up all around the nation, more so than in any other time. Pacifism and conscientious objection in the United States have been moral issues that have fallen under question due to the belief of the participants that killing, war, and the act of violence is wrong and immoral. To begin to understand the workings of conscientious objection, it is important have a clear view of what pacifism is. The roots of pacifism reach back for literally hundreds of years. Practically all of the messiahs of all the chief religions of the world preached for pacifism including: Allah and Muhammad from the Muslim Koran, Jesus and God from the Bible used by Catholics, Christens, and Quakers, and in the Jewish Torah. Other teachers of pacifism include: Plato and Socrates. The moral and ethical principles of pacifism and conscientious objection have been present throughout United States history. There have been known objectors in every single war that America has been somehow involved, Including: The French and Indian War, The Revolutionary War, The War of 1812, The Civil War, The Spanish American War, The Mexican American War, World War One, World War Two, The Korean War, The Vietnam War, The Persian Gulf War, and into the ongoing War Against "Terror". Pacifism is the refusal to participate in any violent actions and or killing. This can be derived from the belief that all life is sacred and that it is morally wrong to take another persons life.

Pertaining to psychology Essay

An article in Psychology Today regarding the concepts of alcoholism as a hereditary factor is analyzed and discussed with attributes to scientific facts and statistical claims. Written by the Psychology Today staff, the article; Is It In The Genes? Driven to drink: Does alcoholism run in the family?, begins by proclaiming that 60% of alcoholics have at least on alcoholic parent. Given this number, the question is then raised as to whether the â€Å"disease† is caused by â€Å"wayward genes or lost dreams.† Though claimed as a mystery, the article foreshadows an answer by stating that studies say both sides may be right. The article states that investigators have concluded that there are two types of alcoholics among men – those with beginnings to alcohol abuse before the age of 25, and those whose disease progresses at later periods in life. Of these two types, those with the early beginnings are more inclined to have incidence of family related alcoholism, which suggests a genetic predisposition. Astonishingly, this particular group is stated to comprise 40% of the estimated million male alcoholics in the United States. Not surprising however, this group is most commonly associated with violent behavior. On the other end of the scale, the men who have shown to become alcoholic later in life show a commonality of less family involvement. Their abuse is attributed more to a sought relief from stress and/or anxiety. Given these results, and the possibility of genetic predispositions, many research studies have been conducted in an effort to single out a common chromosomal defect. Fingers have been pointed at a gene which affects the ability of brain cells to respond to dopamine, which is believed to be a reason that alcoholics abuse alcohol – an unaware effort to boost dopamine levels. Other beliefs sway toward what is called a â€Å"mean gene† that impairs the proper actions of serotonin, a chemical stimulant in the brain. As these studies and the researchers who have concluded them debate about the actual culprit, a recent opinion has been declared by Frederick K. Goodwin, M.D. who is the head of the National Institute of Mental Health. Per the article, Goodwin states that there may be more than one single gene involved with alcoholism, much the same as with diabetes. Goodwin also believes that future research may conclude a common genetic predisposition to a complete host of addictions of any range. In sum, Goodwin believes there may be a common thread among all addicts, but that specific characteristics may perpetuate certain cases. Pertaining to psychology, this article is a fantastic way of raising the questions of psychological issues in addiction. It contradicts the actuality that alcoholism, or addiction altogether, is strictly a sect of the psyche which can be overcome through psychological treatment. This article gives simple, yet concise examples and statistics which proclaim the possibility of hereditary predispositions to alcohol addiction, thus ruling out a strong possibility of psychological defect. Though it could be argued that a psychological predisposition could be genetically evident, the concepts of hereditary factors appear to be more supportive of genetic makeup and not learned behavior, which is a common belief toward alcoholism in European societies. This article is very informative of the most recent approaches toward the diagnostics of alcoholism, and as to where the modern understandings of its illness are derived. In conclusive reaction, this particular article is educational to those who are both aware of the dynamics and characteristics of alcoholics and those completely ignorant of the issue. I am pleased with its content, directive, and overall conveyance of matter. BIBLIOGRAPHY: The PT Staff;   Psychology Today – Is It In the Genes? Driven to drink: Does alcoholism run in the family? Sussex Publishers, LLC 2006